Theories In First Language Acquisition English Language Essay

Theories In branch words attainment English expression EssaySince, the second lyric is an superfluous phraseology after we aim the first address, the L2 erudition process can be influenced by the L1 learning process This essay will demonstrate the similarities and differences in L1 and L2 acquisition by discussing various theories. Then, draw a conclusion based on the evidence provided and my own experience.DefinitionFirst Language AcquisitionFirst Language Acquisition or also known as the Child Language Acquisition is a process whereby children from infancy through early give lessons years acquire their first oral communications (Lightbown Spada, 2006). The term First Language Acquisition or FLA can be referred to the field that investigates the process by which children develop to expenditure words and sentences in their first language, to communicate with some other people (Dictionary of Sociolinguistics, 2004).Second Language AcquisitionAccording to a Dictionary of Sociolinguistics (2004), the term Second Language Acquisition or SLA can be referred to the academic discipline that investigate the process of pitying when learning second language (L2) or additional languages other than the first language. It involves the ability of people to use and develop a complex system of sound, word, sentence structure, and meaning of any non-native language (Encyclopedia of Cognitive Science, 2005). It also tries to look factors such as environment, individual differences, and social aspect which can be crucial factors underlining the acquire of second language (Ortega, 2009).Theories in First Language AcquisitionVarious theories and admittancees have been developed over the past years attempting to study and analyze how do children acquire their mother tongue. This essay will identify ii main theories that explain the learning process of the childs first language Behaviourism and Nativist or Innateness theory.BehaviourismThe behaviorism theory assume s how do children speak that children practise what they hear, and then continue with positive support, children learn language through conditioning and riding habit formation (Ellis, 2008).According to B.F. Skinner and his colleagues (Gass Larry, 2008), learning or a exchange of behaviour on the part of the learner, is brought about by a process known as operant conditioning which is the result of repeated training. Operant room voluntary behaviour which is the result of learners own free-will and is non forced by any outsider or thing (Ortega, 2009). The learner will demonstrate the vernal behaviour first as a chemical reaction to a system of a reward or punishment, and finally it will become an automatic response.Behaviourists debate that learning a language is no different from learning anything else. It becomes a habit by the stimulus-response-reinforcement-repetition process (Cook, 2001). The behaviourists also claim that we learn by untrue and by association (Lightb own Spada, 2006). However, psycholinguists argue that imitation is not enough because it is not only the mechanical repetition but also natural exposure that children acquire language (Cook, 2001).Therefore, from the behaviourist approach, language acquisition can be seen as a stimulus-response process. Children learn language by immitation and analogy. The roles of imitation, repetition, reinforcement, and motivation are essential in learning the language. The First Language Acquisition is thus the result of nature which based on practicing.Nativist or Innateness theoryUn care the behaviourist approach that does not take into consideration the childs own cognitive processes, the Innateness Hypothesis proposed by linguist Noam Chomsky supports the idea that language acquisition has a biological foundation (Ortega, 2009). He claims that children learn their first languages through cognitive learning and acquires them by natural exposure (Ortega, 2009). That means both nature and n urture influence the acquisition of language in children. He hypothesized that children are born with a specific ignorant ability to discover for themselves the underlying rules of a language system on the base of operations of the samples of a natural language they are exposed to (Lightbown Spada, 2006). This innate endowment was seen as a sort of template, containing the principles that are universal to all human beings. This is called everyday Grammar (UG). As defined by Chomsky (1976, as cited by Cook, 2001 pp181-182) prevalent Grammar is the system of principles, conditions, and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages the essence of human language. According to Chomsky, in that respect are principles, which allow or prevent a specific structure from occurring in all human languages, and parameters, which govern ways in which human languages differ, usually expressed as a limited choice between two options (Cook, 2001). These principles and parameter s are built in the human mind. In other words, children have an innate faculty that instructs them while learning of language (Mitchell and Myles, 2004 33). Chomsky also introduced the Language Acquisition Device or LAD to explain that in that respect is some innate mental capacity which help the children to process all the languages they hear since they were born (Cook, 2001).Thus, from the innatist approach, language is an innate or in-born process. Children learn language by application. It argued that language learning is not a behavior but a specific mental process and emphasized on the important role of exposure to language.Theories in Second Language AcquisitionBehaviourismBehaviourism gave birth to a stimulus-response (S-R) theory which sees language as a set of structures and acquisition as a matter of habit formation (Larsen-Freeman Long, 1991). By ignoring any internal mechanisms, it takes into account the linguistic environment and the stimuli it produces. It is sugge sted that learning is an observable behaviour which is automatically acquired by means of stimulus and response in the form of mechanical repetition. Thus, to acquire a language is to acquire automatic linguistic habits. According to Johnson (2004), Behaviorism undermined the role of mental processes and learned learning as the ability to inductively discover patterns of rule-governed behavior from the examples provided to the learner by his or her environment. Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) consider that S-R models offer little promises as explanations of SLA, except for perhaps pronunciation and the rote-memorization of formulae. This view of language learning emerged research on contrastive analysis, especially error analysis (Ortega, 2009) . It has the main focus of which is the interference of ones first language in the nates language. According to Ellis (2008), an important reaction to behaviourism was the interlanguage studies, as the simple comparison between first and sec ond language neither explained nor described the language produced by L2 learners. In this essay, interlanguage studies will be excluded as the concern of the area has been mainly with the acquisition of grammatical morphemes or specific language structures.Universal grammar theoryAccording to Cook (2001), as a counterpoint to the environmental perspective, Chomskys followers try to understand SLA in the light of his universal grammar (UG) theory, a human innate endowment. Chomsky is interested in the nature of language and sees language as a mirror of the mind (Gass Selinker, 2008). Although he is not concerned with SLA, his work has been influencing studies in this area. According to his theory, it can be seen that every human being is biologically endowed with the Language Acquisition Device (LAD), which is creditworthy for the initial state of language development. The UG theory considers that the excitant from the environment is insufficient to account for language acquisitio n. In the same perspective, White (200322) says that If it turns out that the L2 learner acquires abstract properties that could not have been bring forth from the stimulant drug, this is strongly indicative that principles of UG constrain interlanguage grammars, parallel to the situation of L1 acquisition. As Mitchel and Myles (200494) remind us, The universal Grammar approach is only interested in the learner as a processor of a mind that contains language and not as a social being.Comprehension hypothesisInfluenced by Chomskys assumptions on language as an innate faculty, Krashen developed an influential proposal to explain SLA which he first named as monitor model with emphasis on the contrast between learning and acquisition, then called it the input hypothesis (Krashen 1978, cited in Lightbown Spada, 2006). It focuses on the data which feed acquisition, and more recently, comprehension hypothesis emphasizing the mental process as responsible for acquisition (Ellis, 2008). A ccording to Krashen (20041), The Comprehension Hypothesis is closely related to other hypotheses. The Comprehension Hypothesis refers to subconscious acquisition, not conscious learning. The result of providing acquirers with comprehensible input is the emergence of grammatical structure in a predictable order. A strong affective filter, such as high anxiety, will prevent input from reaching those parts of the brain that promote language acquisition (Cook, 2001). According to Lightbown and Spada (2006), Krashens model views acquisition in a linear perspective which not only establishes a cause and effect relationship between input and acquisition but also states that the grammatical structure is acquired in a predictable order. Nonetheless, like in the other theories discussed so far, his theory does not go beyond the acquisition of grammatical structures. Krashens model lacks research evidence. As Cook (2001) points out it makes instinct in its own terms but is not verifiable.Int eraction theoryOther attempts to explain SLA are the different versions of the interaction hypothesis defended by covey (1978) and by Long (1981, 1996), who did not accept Krashens Input Hypothesis. Both wrap up and Long consider that input alone is not sufficient to explain SLA. Hatch disagrees that learners first learn structures and then use them in discourse. Hatch considers the reverse possibility. One learns how to do conversation, one learns how to interact verbally, and out of this interaction syntactic structures are developed (Harch, 1978 p. 404). Based on an empirical study, Long (1981) observed that in conversations between native and non-native speakers, there are more modifications in interaction than in the input provided by the native speakers. Long does not reject the positive role of modified input, but claims that modifications in interactions are consistently found in successful SLA. Long (1996) suggests that negotiation for meaning, especially negotiation work that triggers interactional adjustments by the NS or more competent interlocutor, facilitates acquisition because it connects input, internal learner capacities, peculiarly selective attention, and output in productiveways.However, Larsen-Freeman and Long (1991) argue that the interactionist views are more powerful than other theories because they invoke both innate and environmental factors to explain language learning.Similarities and Differences between FLA and SLAAge a key factor differentiate L1 from L2Age can be regarded as another key factor displaying the differences between L1 and L2 acquisition. Since, in the L1 acquisition, children normally complete the process by four to six years old, while the age range in acquiring the L2 can be alter wildly (Ortega, 2009). Moreover, according to Ellis (2008), age is recognized as being important owing to the assumption that older learners tend to be less successful in regard to SLA than younger learners, which may be owing to the fact that target-language norms do not pose as much of a threat to younger learners identities.However, there are two issues that many theorists have been arguing about the relationship between age and L2 acquisition. That the age effect can be approached from biological explanations or from non-biological explanations (Ortega, 2009). From the biological perspective (Gass Selinker, 2008), there is the Critical Period Hypothesis in L2 learning which is proposed by Penfield and Roberts (1959) and Lenneberg (1967). On the other hand, from the non-biological perspective, some researchers have emphasized on the influence of socio-educational and affective-motivational forces (Ortega, 2009).

long-term memory systems of the human brain

long- limit storeho put on dusts of the human brainCurrent knowledge is summarized well-nigh long-term memory remainss of the human brain, with memory systems defined as specific neural net exercises that support specific mnemonic processes. In the late 19th Century, German Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus naturalized that humans tend to forget most of what they learn in a class within thirty days. With divulge some aid to help us retain what we learn, broad amounts of crucial in functionation be lost. This paper describes about the how to advance our memory, how repeat improves the efficiency of memory processing, by improving physical social welfargon how it helps improving memory, and ways to increase our depths of level of memory processing.IntroductionIn psychology, memoryis regulated by a constantly changing organization of cognizance or an organisms ability to store, retain, and subsequently retrieve teaching. It has been hypothesized that triad processes occur in retentiveness perception and registering of a stimulant, temporary maintenance of the perception, or short-run memory and lasting storage of the perception, or long-term memory.Two major recognized types of long-term cognitive memory arProcedural memory-involving the recall of learned skills. declaratory memory-the remembrance of specific stimuli. For long-term memory to occur there must be a period of education consolidation.A conscious awareness in regard as that they are recollecting something of the past. Some of what we experience day to day is sto red-faced away in our minds for future reference, but much of it is not. For example, you tycoon describe in smart as a whip detail the interior of a quaint ice skim everywhere parlor you visited last summer, but be un competent to recall what flavor ice cream you had. On closer reflection, this is only when the tip of the iceberg when we look at the full range of human memory capabilities. One of the interesting features of your memory system is that you dont control what is stored beca put on much of our memory is submerged from conscious view. retrospection is an integral part of our existence, yet it is only vaguely understood. When you want to mobilize something doesnt mean that you cornerstone remember the entire. Indeed, when you thinking, most of what you thinking is not stuff that you consciously try to store. You didnt try to commit the whole thing that you did to your memory. In this regard, you might be unable to remember a complete of the event.Its hard to grasp just how specific, or narrow of your thoughts and your memories. For example, suppose you passing your neighbors house, you encounter a barking dog. in that respect are some(prenominal) brasss of the dog that you could think about. Perhaps you could think about the sound of the dogs bark, what the dog looked like, or the meaning of the bark like why its barking, whether its barking at you, the possible that a barking dog leave alone bite, and so on. Each of these thoughts will lead you to different memories of the event the next day. If you think about the sound of the dogs bark, the next day youll belike remember that quite well, but not its appearance.To put this example into broader terms, even simple concepts make up multiple aspects of meaning, which one of these you think about will tally what you remember.Literature ReviewWays to Improve repositingThere are 16 ways to improve our memory. The ways included convince ourselves that we do imbibe a hot memory that will improve, exercise your brain, exercise daily, reduce stress, eat well and eat right, take break down pictures, give yourself time to form a memory, create vivid and memorable scopes, repeat things you need to learn, group things you need to remember, organize your life, try meditation, sleep well, build your memorization arsenal, venture out and learn from mistake and mentionening to binaural beats. (Ben Rubenstein, There sa Mulligan turkey cock Viren, 2010)In the article Improving Your Memory-Tips and Technique for Memory Enhancement (Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A., Amara Rose, Gina Kemp, M.A., and Suzanne Barston, 2007), they suggested the stages of memory foundation and maintenance. The stages are encyclopaedism, consolidation and retrieval. Besides that, they stated the tips for memory improvements. They suggested that brain exercises gage improve memory because memory is just like a muscular strength, the more(prenominal) we work out our brain, and the better we will be able to process and remember selective teaching. Furthermore, they excessively stated the general guidelines and mnemonic devices to improve memory. Healthy habits and nutrition also suggested by them to improve our memory.In Human Memory What It is and How to Improve It suggested that there are many ways to improve our memory such as the use of sure mental technique, special care with nutrition and medicines (Silvia capital of Montana Cardoso, 1997). For example, stimulate memory with using it to the utmost and challenge a novelty. Pay attention, concentrate and ward off all other thoughts can help us to improve our memory. Other ways which can improve our memory is relax, sleep and nutrition. Besides that, medication, alcohol, smoking and caffeine are believed that may interfere the memory function. Studies have shown that, when compared with non-smokers, individuals smokers of one or more packs of cigarettes a day had difficulties of remembering volumes faces and names in a ladder of visual and verbal memory (Turkington, 1996).We tend to forget things much easier as we age because the neurons in our brain responsible for memory lose elasticity over time. However, he suggested some coiffes to maintain a great memory for as long as possible. Sleep well is one of the methods he had suggested. Besides that, use acronyms and other mnemonic devices also help to improve our memory. Rest and eat brain su per foods also suggested by him to improve our memory. (Todd ,2007)There are 7 mnemonic devices to improve our memory. First, pegword method that is useful for memorizing calls of unrelated items in assemble with create a visual mental image of each item in the list with a peg word. Second, method of loci which is useful for memorizing lists of unrelated items in order with commits a mental toss to memory. Third, use acronym method which creates an acronym using the first earn of each of the items. Fourth, use the acrostic method which creates a sentence in which the first letter of each provides a cue for the materials. Fifth, music or rhymes method can be use to set a familiar tune, rhythm or rhyme on the materials that we going to memorize. Sixth, mnemonic association is the method which associated to-be-remember materials with an aspect of the material that is hard to remember. Lastly, the keyword method can be use for foreign vocabulary words. (Daniel T. Willingham, 2009)A lmost everyone would like to improve their memory. The temporal lobes of the brain are find behind the eyes and under the temples at the sides of head. The temporal lobes of the brain are associated with short-term memory and transferring memories to long-term storage. In addition, the temporal lobes are worryatic with language, exercise social cues, understanding music and tone of voice, and mood stability. The genus Hippocampus is another part of the brain located closer to the center and next to the temporal lobes. The hippocampus stores new information for several weeks and helps a person learn new skills. Omega-3 fatty acids and antioxidants are important in improving our memory. (Wendy Hodsdon, ND, 2006)A muckle of molecular, cellular, systems and behavioral findings have demonstrated the need for sleep after education for the consolidation of memory. (Seung-Schik Yoo, Peter T Hu, Ninad Gujar, Ferenc A Jolesz and Matthew P Walker, 2007) short-run memory compendious-term memory-closely related to working memory-is the very short time that you keep something in mind before either dismissing it or transferring it to long-term memory. Short-term memory is shorter than you might think, lasting less than a minute. Its what allows you to remember the first half of a sentence you hear or read long enough to make sense experience of the end of the sentence. But in order to store that sentence (or thought, fact, idea, word, impression, sight, or whatever else) for longer than a minute or so, it has to be transferred to long-term memory.Short term memory (STM) is a limited capacity store that, for example, can be assessed with a digit span task. Most people can take a crap between five and nine items in STM, but by chunking items together can hold more information. Without rehearsal, this memory trace fades over the way of minutes. A current debate is about how much of this is due to decay alone or interference from subsequent stimuli. Recall for items oft en shows a J-shaped straight position curve where early and late items presented in a list are recalled better. Late item success is known as the recency substance and reflects short term memory fading, while early item success is known as the primacy effect and is tough to reflect a long term store (Matlin, 1996).Short-term memory allows one to recall something from several siemenss to as long as a minute without rehearsal. Short-term memory is believed to rely broadly speaking on an acoustic code for storing information, and to a lesser extent a visual code. Conrad (1964) found that test keep downs had more difficulty recalling collections of words that were acoustically alike (e.g. dog, hog, fog, bog, log).This is the process whereby we can take advantage of prior knowledge to package information more effectively and hence to enhance storage and retrieval. For example, sequence of digits that comprised a number of familiar dates, such as 1492 1776 1945, would be easier to r ecall then the same 12 digits in random order.However, short-term memory has been an unexplainable phenomenon with certain individuals gifted to remember large amounts of information, quickly, and be able to recall that information in seconds. Short-term memory is supported by transient manakins of neuronal communication, subordinate on regions of the frontal lobe( oddly dorsolateral prefrontal cortex) and the parietal lobe.The limited information which manages to pass the hurdle of selective filtering is not necessarily retained with any degree of permanence. It is located in a temporary storage unit, where information is held just long enough for it to be analyzed and transferred to long term memory. Information received is held only for about five to twenty seconds, and if it is not attended to, either decays or is lost (Magill, 2001).Part of the process of registering the information in the STM is to transform or encode it so it is capable of being rehearsed or shaped and la ter stored. Emphasis should be on rehearsing the information. It is here that the learner understands the meaning, message, intent, value and the representation of the information in relationship to other information in the memory. In motor skill learning, it is important that coaches and teachers should take into account the capacity of the STM. If a lot of information of a particular skill is given at any one time, then it is impossible for most students to remember all the instructions. So instructions are best kept brief, or broken down into parts to the degree that attention is properly maintained.As we grow older with many cognitive conditions, our short-term memory span often becomes even shorter. This makes us more likely to have trouble keeping up with certain tasks, such as remembering which button to push in a banks phone menu. It also gives our brains less time to successfully move new information to long-term memory, which makes us more likely to forget details of upst art events, such as a story our children tell us or instructions our doctors give us.Long-Term MemoryLong-term memory, or LTM, is the storehouse for information that must be kept for long periods of time. But LTM is not just a more unchangeable version of STM the stage model of memory suggests its a different kind of memory altogether.The storage in sensory memory and short-term memory generally have a strictly limited capacity and duration, which means that information is available only for a certain period of time, but is not retained indefinitely. By contrast, long-term memory can store much larger quantities of information for potentially unlimited duration. Its capacity is immeasurably large.Long-term memories, on the other hand, are maintained by more stable and permanent changes in neural connections wide spread throughout the brain. The hippocampus is essential (for learning new information) to the consolidation of information from short-term to long-term memory, although i t does not seem to store information itself.Without the hippocampus, new memories are unable to be stored into long-term memory, and there will be a very short attention span. Furthermore, it may be involved in changing neural connections for a period of three months or more after the initial learning.Types of Long-Term MemoryTulving (1987) has proposed the existence of three kinds of long-term memory stage, each with distinctly different properties, and each probably based on different brain mechanisms.The three type of Long-term memoryProcedural Memory-Memory for motor movement and skills-Knowledge about how to do somethingsemantic Memory-Memory for meaning without reference to the time and place of learning-Memories that recall a person-to-person moment from our pastEpisodic Memory-Knowledge about the populace-Memory for specific experiences that can be defined in terms of time and space-Stores as facts that make little or no reference to ones personal experiencesThese various parts of long-term memory do not operate in isolation from one another. While it is not crystallise how they work together, it is clear that they are related and overlap. (Tulving,1972)Storing Information for the Long-Term MemoryTo store information over the long-term memory, you need to produce elaborate and distinctive memory records. management on the meaning of the input, relating to be remembered information to other things in memory, and forming visual images of the input all lead to distinctive memory records. Forming a visual image is particularly effective, and many memory aids, or mnemonic devices, are based on the use of imagery. Long-term memory also depends on how information is in reality presentedItem presented near the beginning and end of a sequence are remembered well, are as items that have been repeated. Spaced or distributed practice turns out to be more effective than massed practice.Two major problems related to the use of long-term memoryTo transfer the in formation accurately to long-term memory.To retrieve the information accurately. The elemental strategy for transferring information from working memory into long-term memory is referred to as encoding or elaboration.These terms refer to the process of relating information to other information that is already stored in long-term memory. Piaget and other constructivists have developed detailed theories regarding how information is stored in long-term memory.Differences between LTM and STM in quad major waysThe way in which information is recalledThe amount of information stored in LTM is so vast, we cannot scan the entire limit of LTM when we facial expression for a bit of information, as we do in STM. Instead, LTM has to be indexed. We retrieve information from LTM using cues, much as we use a call number to locate a book in the library. This retrieval can be an intentional act or an unintentional one, as when perceive a particular song brings back memories of a lost love. In ei ther case, only information relevant to the cue is retrieved, rather than the entire contents of LTM.The form in which information is stored in memoryLTM differs from STM in the kind of information that is most easily stored. You will recall that information is usually stored in STM in terms of the physical qualities of the experience (what we saw, did, tasted, touched, or heard), with a special emphasis on acoustic codes. Although sensory memories can be stored in LTM, information is stored in LTM principally in terms of its meaning, or semantic codes.The reasons that forgetting occursUnlike STM, where information that is not rehearsed or process appears to drop out the system, information stored in LTM is not just stable but actually appears to be permanent. Not all psychologists agree that memories in LTM are permanent, but there is a great deal of evidence supporting this view. If memories in LTM are indeed permanent, this means that forgetting occurs in LTM not because the m emory is erased buy because we are unable to retrieve in for some reason.The physical location of these functions in the brainSTM is primarily a function of the frontal lobes of the cerebral cortex, whereas information that is stored in LTM is first integrated in the hippocampus and then transferred to the areas of the cerebral cortex involved in language and perception for permanent storage.Stages of Memory Foundation and MaintenanceThere are 3 stages of memory foundation and maintenance acquisition, consolidation, and retrieval.At acquisition stage, new information enters our brain. The key to encoding information into our memory is concentration. Unless we focus on information intently, otherwise it goes in one ear and out the other.At second stage, that is consolidation, hippocampus sends a signal to store the information as long-term memory.When we need to recall the information, we reach retrieval stage. Our brain have to oxygenize the same pattern of nerve cells used to stor e it. The more frequently you need the information, the easier it is to retrieve it along healthy nerve cell connections (Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A., Amara Rose, Gina Kemp, M.A., and Suzanne Barston, 2007).How To Improve MemoryA) Sleep WellEveryone in the world needs consistently 7-8 sleeping hours to increase our memory. While sleeping, the brain disconnects from the senses, proceeds to revising and storing memory. Besides that, the brain appears to watertight up memories of newly acquired information during sleep. At day time, a quick nap can be the impetus for a solution to a problem you have been working (Todd, 2007). Sleep is necessary for memory consolidation. The amount of sleep will affect the brains ability to recall recently learned information. match to recent studies conducted at the Harvard Medical School, getting a good nights sleep may improve our short-term memory and long-term relational memory (Ben Rubenstein, Theresa Mulligan Tom Viren, 2010). Insomnia would produc e a chronic fatigue and would impair the ability of concentration and the storing of information (Silvia Helena Cardoso, PhD, 1997).B) NutritionEat well and eat right are very essential to improve our memory. Roughly 50-60% of the brains overall weight is pure fat, which is used as insulation for its billions of nerve cells. The better insulated a cell, the faster it sends messages and the speedier our thinking. wherefore eating foods with a healthy mix of fats is essential for long-term memory. Fish, especially wild salmon, mackerel and anchovies, and dark leafy green vegetables are excellent choices (Todd, 2007)B vitamins, especially B6, B12 and folic acid are good for our memory. These vitamins protect neurons by breaking down an amino acid, homocysteine, which is toxic to nerve cells. These vitamins also involved in making red blood cells, which carry oxygen. The best sources of B vitamins is spinach and other dark leafy greens, broccoli, asparagus, strawberries, melons, black beans and other legumes, citrus fruits and soybeans (Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A., Amara Rose, Gina Kemp, M.A., and Suzanne Barston, 2007).Besides that, antioxidants like vitamins C, vitamins E and carotene are also essential in improve our memory. Antioxidants fight free radicals which are highly reactive and can damage cells that can occur with age. Antioxidants move with them safely and neutralize them. Antioxidants also improve the flow of oxygen through the body and brain (Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A., Amara Rose, Gina Kemp, M.A., and Suzanne Barston, 2007). Eating many colors of fruits and vegetables ensures a wide renewing of antioxidants to nourish and protect the brain. The best sources of antioxidants are blueberries and other berries, sweet potatoes, red tomatoes, spinach, broccoli, green tea, nuts and seeds, citrus fruits, liver (Wendy Hodsdon, ND, 2006).Furthermore, Omega-3 fatty acids are a major component of the gray matter of the brain and can also improve brain employment. They count as healthy fats, as opposed to complete(a) fats and trans fats, omega-3 fatty acids protecting against inflammation and high cholesterol (Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A., Amara Rose, Gina Kemp, M.A., and Suzanne Barston, 2007). The fat in the brain is essential to proper nerve function, in nerve membranes, and as a component of brain synapses. People who eat diets high in saturated fats or trans-fatty acids frequently will show signs of dementia earlier than people who eat fish regularly. Omega-3 fatty acids can found in wild-caught, deep sea fish like wild salmon, tuna, mackerel and herring. Fish oil subjoining is good for the brain and memory (Wendy Hodsdon, ND, 2006).Moreover, water is also an essential source for our memory. Water help maintain the memory systems working, especially in older persons. According to Dr. Trukington, lack of water in the body has an immediate and deep effect on memory, dehydration can generate confusion and other thought difficulties (Silvia Hele na Cardoso, PhD, 1997).C) Brain ExerciseMemory, like muscular strength, is a use it or lose it proposition. The more we work out our brain, the better we will be able to process and remember the information. Regularly exercising the brain keeps it growing and spurs the development of new nerve connections that can help improve memory (Ellen Jaffe-Gill, M.A., Amara Rose, Gina Kemp, M.A., and Suzanne Barston, 2007).By developing new mental skills we can keep our brain active and improve its physiological functioning. The mental skills can be puzzles and games like crossword and Sudoku which can practice on for several minutes per day. Novelty and sensory stimulation are the foundation of brain exercise. We can use our memory to the utmost and challenge a novelty and they can be fun. Almost any silly suggestion can work, says David Eagleman, PhD, neuroscientist and assistant professor at Baylor College of Medicine in Houston, Texas. For example, if you work in an office, learn to danc e. If you are a dancer, learn to deal with a computer. This could stimulate your brains neural circuits to grow. Besides that, we can try a neurabic exercise, which is an aerobic exercise for our brain. This will force us to use your faculties in unusual ways, like showering and getting dressedwith our eyes closed, take a course in a subject we dont know much about, learn a new game of strategy, cook up some recipes in an unfamiliar cuisine, drive home via a different route, brush teeth with opposite hand. Thats the most effective way to keep your synapses firing (Ben Rubenstein, Theresa Mulligan Tom Viren, 2010).D ( i) Repetition PrimingDefinition the repetition effect a repeated stimulus is processed better on the second occurrence than on the first. (Christophe Pallier , Nuria Sebastian-Galles and Angels Colome, 1999)Repeated process of a stimulus often facilitates performance on a cognitive task. This facilitation is known as repetition priming and, because it can arise in the absence of conscious recall of the original stimulus presentation, is often assumed to reveal an implicit form of memory. Repetition priming is a very reliable phenomenon and has been observed in many tasks for example, lexical decision (Scarborough, Cortese, and Scarborough, 1977) and word-fragment completion (Tulving, Schacter, Stark, 1982)The basic effect reported in numerous masked repetition priming studies is that manipulating the correspondentity of a briefly presented, pattern masked prime word and an immediately following and clearly visible target word produces systematic differences in target reaction time (RT greater overlap = faster RTs). Such effects have typically been interpreted as reflecting processing that is started by the masked prime and then modified when the turn out target is similar to or different from the prime along some dimension of interest (e.g., orthographic, lexical, or semantic). Because subjects are usually unaware of the identity of the pri me, it is widely believed that this type of priming is predominantly sensitive to the fast feed-forward (automatic) components of word recognition (Forster, Mohan, Hector, 2003 Lamme, Zipsser, Spekreijse, 2002).Recently, several masked priming studies have reported that certain measures of neural activity are also sensitive to processes involved in visual letter and word processing (e.g., Dehaene et al., 2004 Grossi Coch, 2005 Holcomb Grainger, 2006 Petit, Grainger, Midgley, Holcomb, in press).In the late 19th Century, German Psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus established thathumans forget 90% of what they learn in a class within thirty days. Without some aid tohelp us retain what we learn, massive amounts of crucial information are lost. The mostpowerful and simple technique to improve retention is repetition.D (ii) Repetitive LearningScience and plain, old-fashioned observations have proven that humans learn massivequantities from repetition. Advertising is a primary example of t his phenomenon with companies spending billions of dollars to present us with seemingly mind-numbing repeated messages. These messages work, even though they are basically passive. Repetition is even more effective when it is an active process and if repetition has meaningful results, then learning will take place. (Jarrett Thoms, 2001) many an(prenominal) studies have demonstrated strong positive effects of repetition on learning. Repeated presentation of items increases memory for those items (Cyndi McDaniel, 2003). Repeated retrieval is also reported to improve memory. By repeating important concepts and then forcing the learner to retrieve those concepts several times, you strengthen the neural pathways, making subsequent retrieval easier and retention more durable and long-lasting. In us, memories do not naturally sit still in cold storage. (John Sutton, 2004)As repeated stimulus is processed better on the second occurrence than on the first, this shows that working memory can be reinforced via repetition, for example, students who practice more in mathematics will have a better chance to solve mathematical question easily when a similar question came out.E) Mnemonic devicesMnemonics are clues of any kind that help us remember something, usually by causing us to associate the information we want to remember with a visual image, a sentence, or a word. (Daniel T. Willingham, 2009)Peg-word system. Peg-word system is a method which is useful for memorizing list of unrelated items in order as well as the specific numbers associated with the words. The key to success in using the peg system is visual association. We can create a visual image of each item in the list with peg word. The pegs provide cues to memory. This method using bizarre imagery helps to ensure that the cues are distinctive and unlikely to be confused with other cues. For example, pegs which is rhyme with numbers, one is a bun, two is a shoe, three is a tree, four is a door, five is a hive an d so on. Next, match these items with the list of words we want to remember. It becomes a task similar to the imagery activity in which we had to remember word pairs using visualization. For example If we have to write an entry in your journal for school, we also have a geometry assignment due tomorrow, we also have to read a chapter from our psychology text book. We could use either a mental image of our textbook, or an image that represents the topic in history that we are studying. Lets say we also had to walk the dog. Perhaps leash would be a good keyword. Then, we also have to remember to feed the dog dog bowl. We also plan to eat supper with our friends perhaps a plate or the dining room table would be good for this. We dont want to forget to brush our teeth after dinner. After dinner, you put your pajamas on, drink a glass of water, and go to sleep. We can use the peg system to track our schedule. (Daniel T. Willingham, 2009)bun + journalshoe + geometry shapestree + history bookdoor + leashhive + dog bowlsticks + plateheaven + toothbrushgate + pajamasvine + waterhen + sleepMethod of loci. This method also useful for memorizing lists of unrelated items in order. We can commit a mental walk to memory that is a familiar route with separate and identifiable locations, and then create a visual image that associates each item on the list with a location on the mental walk. In order to use the method of Loci, we must first imagine a place with which we are familiar. There are several possible places we could use. We must be able to identify several locations within that one place. It is best if these locations can be given a logical order, such as clockwise, or top to bottom. As with the peg-word strategy, method of loci using bizarre imagery helps to ensure that the cues are distinctive and unlikely to be confused with other cues. For example, heres a mental walk from my front door to my driveway. The first location is my front porch, which has a birds nes t by the door, the second is the sidewalk, which has a large crack, and the third is my asphalt driveway with a red blushing mushroom stain. To memorize the list onion, duck, artist, I would associate onion with my front door, perhaps by putting onions in the nest instead of eggs. Then Id associate duck with the sidewalk by imagining the duck with its beak stuck in the crack, and artist with an artist admiring the paint stain on the asphalt. (Daniel T. Willingham, 2009)Acronym and Acrostic. Create an acronym using the first letter of the items that we have to remember, if we can remember the acronym, we have a good cue for the items. For example, the planets, in order of their distance from the sun Mecurey, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, Pluto. We can memorize using acronym method MVEMJSUNP = My Very Earnest Mother Just Served Us Nine Pickles. The colors of the rainbow, in order Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet. The acronym method used to memo rize is ROY G. BIV (A made-up name). (Daniel T. Willingham, 2009)Music or Rhymes. The item that we have to remember is set to a familiar tune, set to a rhythm, or made into a rhyme. Rhymes are easier to remember because they can be stored by acoustic coding (a type of short term memory coding in which us remember information by the way it sounds). Music and rhymes are always use among young children as in learning alphabet with first rudiment song. If we forget the words, the melody can provide a cue to help us remember it. (Daniel T. Willingham, 2009)Keyword. This method is often used for foreign vocabulary words. When we would like to learn foreign language, we can find a word from any language we

Global Reputation of American People Essay -- essays research papers

The Ameri behindIf asked to describe Americans in a few words, around foreigners may use such adjectives as powerful, influential, smart, wealthy or patriotic. Undoubtedly others will venture on to say that Americans atomic number 18 lazy, spoiled, reckless, arrogant, or foolish. There is no doubt that a foreigner who has never stepped foot on American soil will probably have distorted still firm views of America, its state and its government. This is because America is very influential, both positively and negatively, around the world. For any born and raised American it may still be hard to give a clear, unbiased perception of America, simply because America is so diverse and few have seen all that the United States has to offer. As a born and raised American, who has seen but a glimpse compared to what is offered within the boundaries of our country, not to mention, I have yet to have the opportunity to see and live in any other country, by which I could compare America. I can only give an overview of what I have observed, both first-hand and second. Americans are for the most part ignorant, selfish, egotistical, and irrational, however, we are also diverse, enterprising, competitive, and? dress hat of all?liberated.I could not imagine myself living in Iraq right now?nor any other far away country for that matter. What?s get through than the fact that I can?t is that many don?t try. Not only is the most impoverished American citizen entitled to some federal agency of government nourishment but many complain about it. We also love to accept welfare checks, complain that immigrants are taking our jobs, and at the corresponding time refuse the jobs that are ?below? us as Americans. It isn?t just the lower class either, the upper and middle class is guilty of ignorance an... ...hat are hold dearing us. One recent case was with the Patriot Act. After the occurrence of 9/11 everyone, for the most part, was in favor of the Patriot Act because they believed it would protect them. However, after the nation?s nerves began to settle and people weren?t as anxious, many Americans decided the Patriot Act was actually inconvenient for them and changed their minds. It would come along that no matter how much freedom is awarded to us we will never be satisfied. Furthermore, Americans happen to be indecisive and irrational when it comes to their own government.In all, Americans can be ignorant, selfish, egotistical, irrational and indecisive, while also remaining diverse, enterprising and competitive. Best of all, we are liberated. Of course my views are only generalizations. As I said, we are a diverse people and do not share any characteristics as a nation.

What Catholic means :: essays research papers

...He will come to judge the living and the dead and his kingdom will have no end...... We believe in one holy catholic and apostolic Church. We recited these word over and over alltime we go to Mass. Do we really know what it means? Is it dear a prayer that we are saying? How can I believe?The church is a giant mystery story will not understand in life. There are ways that help us understand though. We have many examples of the chruch all around us.We have the saints, who were regluar people like us, who tryed their best to fall out Christ and his teachings.We have people that are around us, they are the ones that help us in anytime and who try their best to follow.When I was smaller I didnt anxiety about the Church and what it meant. I scarce knew i was supposed to worship and that was that. I remeber i used to pray every moring, every night and every time i would eat.I simply believed and ti wa no problem. I never knew what it meant, but now questions are appearing about it . sometimes i tent to wonder if i was expsed to other religons would i still pick being a catholic?Some things i can capture and others just leave me in the dark. Would it reallly be better if no one ever asked questions and just followed like an innocent child?This could be illusted in parables. The chruch has many parables such(prenominal) as the sheepfold, the vine and the branches, and the leaven. the parables show example of how we have to have faith. For example, in the sheepfold it explains how we are supposed to follow and who do we follow. The chruch has modles that help us understand the mystery of the Church. They are comunity, hearald, sacrament, institution, and sevant. The Church is united in belief of jesus and his teaching, in Eucharist, in pryer, and in the love of its member for one another.When i think of Catholic what am I thinking about?

Gun-Control in Charlton Heston’s Is Freedom Lost on the Next Generation and Paul Craig Robert’s Unarmed and Unsafe :: Amendment Rights Essays Guns

Gun-Control in Charlton Hestons Is Freedom Lost on the Next Generation and Paul Craig Roberts Unarmed and insecureThere are three ways to approach gunman-control first, it is the citizens constitutional right to own firearms second, firearms kill - get rid of them and third, to have no opinion and not deal with the issue. Whichever view masses have on gun-control, they must first understand the facts and statistics of these issues. Charlton Hestons Is Freedom Lost on the Next Generation? and Paul Craig Roberts Unarmed and Unsafe both study the opposing side of gun-control with facts and logic.In Hestons Is Freedom Lost on the Next Generation, he writes about how we may be losing the conterminous contemporaries of Americans, as they lose an understanding and appreciation of what the Second Amendment is and does (Heston 1). Heston uses the statistics from a June, 2000 national survey of 1,500 high school students to show that the young adults of America do not have faith in the Constitution or Bill of Rights. He reports that 64 pct of high school students favor stricter anti-gun laws, 90 percent favor the licensing of handgun buyers, 96 percent said all handguns should be registered at purchase, and 19 percent of high school students do not trust that the Second Amendment guarantees the right to own a firearm(Heston 1). Heston asks how safe any of Americas freedoms are if twenty percent of high school students hope that the Bill of Rights does not mean what it says? High schools use to have rifle teams along with soccer and football teams, and now even toy guns have the surmisal of being banned. He mentions that being able to own a gun does not mean a thing if so many requirements, fees and restrictions practically escape Americans disarmed. Heston claims that being allowed to own, or even use, a firearm is a maturing experience for young people. He also mentions that the trust that goes hand in hand with the gun does more than show the acknowle dgement of self-discipline and responsibility, it reinforces those virtues better than almost anything else can. Heston argues that it is the Americans responsibility to maintain the rights of gun ownership and provide the next generation with the same freedoms(Heston 1-2) .In Unarmed and Unsafe, Roberts confirms the saying when guns are outlawed, only outlaws will have guns(Roberts 2) He begins his article with the effects of recent gun-control in Britain.

Images and Imagery in Macbeth Essay -- Macbeth essays

Imagery in Macbeth The Bard of Avon considers imagination one of many elements in his tragedy Macbeth which give underpinning to the case of the drama. The imagery might be said to be not a goal in itself but a means to an end. In Fools of Time Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy, Northrop Frye shows how the playwright uses imagery to reinforce the theme This theme is at its clearest where we are most in sympathy with the nemesis. Thus at the end of Macbeth, aft(prenominal) the proclamation the cadence is free, and of promises to make reparations of Macbeths tyranny Which would be planted newly with the time, there will be a renewal not only of time but of the whole rhythm of nature symbolized by the word measure, which includes both the music of the spheres and the dispensing of human justice . . .. (94-95) In his book, On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy, H. S. Wilson interprets the imagery of Macbeth Macbeth is a play in which the poetic atmosphere is very important so impo rtant, indeed, that some recent commentators give the impression that this atmosphere, as created by the imagery of the play, is its determining quality. For those who pay most attention to these powerful atmospheric suggestions, this is doubtless true. Mr. Kenneth Muir, in his introduction to the play - which does not, by the way, interpret it simply from this point of follow - aptly describes the cumulative effect of the imagery The contrast between light and darkness is part of a general antithesis between good and evil, devils and angels, evil and grace, funny farm and heaven . . . and the disease images of IV, iii and in the last act clearly reflect both the evil which is a disease, and Macbeth himself who is the disease from which his country suffe... ...es Tragic Heroes Slaves of Passion. forward-looking York Barnes and Noble, 1970. Frye, Northrop. Fools of Time Studies in Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada University of Toronto Press, 1967. Kermode, Frank. Macbeth. T he Riverside Shakespeare. Ed. G. Blakemore Evans. Boston Houghton Mifflin Company, 1972. Knights, L.C. Macbeth. Shakespeare The Tragedies. A Collectiion of Critical Essays. Alfred Harbage, ed. Englewwod Cliffs, NJ Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1964. Shakespeare, William. The Tragedy of Macbeth. http//chemicool.com/Shakespeare/macbeth/full.html, no lin. Warren, Roger. Shakespeare Survey 30. N.p. n.p., 1977. Pp. 177-78. Rpt. in Shakespeare in the Theatre An Anthology of Criticism. Stanley Wells, ed. England Oxford University Press, 2000. Wilson, H. S. On the Design of Shakespearean Tragedy. Toronto, Canada University of Toronto Press, 1957.

Little Bee Essay -- Literary Analysis, Chris Cleve

unretentive Bee, by Chris Cleve, is a novel that explores unthinkable evil, but simultaneously celebrates its characters in their ability to transcend all that weighs them down, including their pasts, their secrets, and their flaws. For the character of shortsighted Bee, individuation element is inescapably tied to ethnicity, nationality, gender, race, and class. A representative passage of the book that explores Little Bees point of view (both its unceasing optimism and stark realism) occurs in the final chapter Little Bee is awoken from a good aspiration, and then comes the ominous first sentence, There is a moment when you wake up from dreaming in the hot sun, a moment outside time when you do not know what you are (Cleave 258). Little Bee is questioning her identity at just the moment when she should be around sure of it. Because Little Bee has been seeking a home, a family, and belonging, and has seemingly found it, the referee realizes that it is still uncertain. Still there is hope Little Bee is hampered by the weight of her past yet she is a character that has proven she can overcome the boundaries of her identity and change her station in life.The book as alternates between the points of view of Sarah and Little Bee, though this section is told in Little Bees voice. It is critical that the final chapter be her perspective, given that the so much of the book deals with the lack of western knowledge of people like Little Bee, the silence regarding their stories, and the healing power of storytelling. The most significant element of voice in this passage is the tonal shift between its two paragraphs. In the first paragraph, Little Bee is coming out of her dream and the narration is reminiscent of that half-awake state. The second paragra... ...ned. She will stay herself, as the shape-changing magic of dreams whispers back into the roar of the ocean (Cleave 259). It is a foreshadowing of her final decision. She does not look at to fl ee or fight, but instead to surrender herself for the sake of Charlie, because he is young and will continue the dream for her. The reader takes from Little Bee the idea that identity is fluid and ones own self-perception can be a tool of transcendence. Little Bees circumstances require that she reinvents herself from village girl, to refugee, to member of an tweedy British family. Because of her brain, her language, and her imagination, she cannot be marginalized, even though she must succumb to evil. To the reader, Little Bee will remain as free as the wind and as undisturbed as the undisturbed sand, because she has offered her voice and her story as testimony.